Archives for January 2012

Graduate Education Division

National News Cultures: Toward a Profile of Journalists Using Cross-National Survey Findings • Mark Deuze, The Amsterdam School of Communications Research • no abstract

Skeptical Common Sense: The Media and the Truth about Montreux • Michelle Stack, University of Toronto • no abstract

Agenda Setting and Its Theoretical Elaboration • Namkee Park, University of Georgia • no abstract

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Entertainment Studies Interest Group

Focus Group Analysis: Can It Help Explain Present Audience Discontent with Broadcast Network Television? • William J. Adams, Kansas State University • This study used focus groups to investigate audiences dissatisfaction with the major U.S. broadcast networks. The study found a strong perceived lack of variety. However, the term variety actual meant three separate things. While participants gave lip service to a separation between news and entertainment, follow up questions indicate they see no real. Participants had strong anti-business sentiments based on the belief that networks and producers held them in contempt. While participants strongly objected to sex and violence, they could not agree on what represented objectionable content.

Is there sufficient evidence to regulate popular music and music videos?: A review and critique • David J. Atkin and Robert Abelman, Cleveland State University • For nearly half a century, the evolution of rock music has been marked by controversy over its social influence. To a large degree, arguments by the pro- and anti-regulation/censorship camps echo those encountered in debates over the effects of media violence and pornography generally (e.g., Jeffres, 1997). The present study reviews empirical work on the content and effects of violence in rock music and music videos. In evaluating whether the research meets the high burden for regulatory intervention, we must first establish (1) whether the content of these popular arts is, in fact, providing an increasingly toxic content environment, and (2) whether such contents actually influence audience attitudes and behaviors. A review of the literature suggests that assailants of popular music have needed to “fill in the blanks” of their empirical arguments with selective citations to the voluminous literature on general media effects (e.g., with TV violence). The specific literature on popular music and music videos provides little in the way of longitudinal, externally valid findings that can establish a “smoking gun” with media influences as potent causal agents with human behavior. Implications for media regulation are discussed.

Zelda 64 and video game fans: A walkthrough of games. intertextuality and narrative • Mia Consalvo, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee • This paper argues that in order to better understand and theorize video games and game playing, it is necessary to study the activities of gamers themselves. This research examines game fans’ construction of walkthroughs, which guide other players through the action and story of the game. It is argued that these walkthroughs function as narratives for gamers, which are read intertextually by game fans. Further, gamers should be considered active creators of meaning regarding games, as they inhabit many of the characteristics of traditional media fans, including active reading of the media text, construction of media texts to share with other fans, and knowledge of intertextual relations between various media forms.

Front Page Women: Images of Women in Film Version of the Classic Play The Front Page. • Douglass K. Daniel, Ohio University • Four film versions of the play The Front Page, considered by many the definitive work of fiction about newspaper reporters, retained misogynistic elements over nearly six decades. Rather than changing with the times, the stereotypical women characters who dared to enter the man’s world of the press room were crushed by it. Even in the most recent version, made in 1988, women remained the pawns of men when not merely disruptive and annoying.

I HATE YOU SO MUCH RIGHT NOW!: FEMALE AFRICAN AMERICAN ARITISTS AND THE JUSTIFATION OF VIOLENCE IN MUSIC VIDEO • Michele S. Foss and Stephynie Chapman, The University of Florida • This essay explores the ways in which three African-American female musicians justify their use of violence within music video narratives. What are these artists saying in their videos? What do these videos teach viewers about African-American women? Whether a product of the progressive day and age or a product of the frequently controversial hip-hop genre, these videos make a timely cultural comment about an art form that continues to become more assertive.

Sins and Virtues of Prime Time Television: Fictional Characters as Role Models • Kendra L. Gale, University of St. Thomas • This paper is a content analysis of the moral character of fictional characters on popular prime-time, American television programs. This study uses the cardinal sins and virtues: 1) to assess the moral values of characters; 2) to document the overall presence or absence of moral themes in prime time sitcoms and dramas; and 3) to examine the consequences of particularly sinful or virtuous behavior. Characters are assessed for their potential as role models.

Reality Television Goes Interactive: The Big Brother Television Audience • Lisa Gandy and M.J. Land, Georgia College & State University, and Lisa McChristian, Elon College • Reality television was taken to a new realm in the summer of 2000. Television audiences and Internet audiences were married through a voyeuristic, interactive experience. This study attempted to better understand the audience attracted to these interactive, realistic television shows. Utilizing previous studies on audience interactivity, a random telephone survey of Big Brother viewers was administered. Big Brother viewers that browsed the show’s website before and after the show were demographically more likely to be younger, more educated, and PC owners. Big Brother website visitors were significantly more likely to plan to watch the television show, eliminate distractions to that viewing and be more involved during the television show than non-Internet website users.

Wong Kar-Wai: An International Auteur in Hong Kong Film-making • Timothy R. Gleason, University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh, Qi Tang, Bowling Green State University and Jean Giovanetti, Freelance Writer • Wong Kar-Wai is the premier “auteur” of Hong Kong cinema. This paper analyzes his film, Chungking Express using the “auteur as structure” approach. The analysis reveals Wong utilizes a French New Wave style to represent his view of a Hong Kong undergoing social and political transformations. This research is significant because it introduces the work of an internationally-acclaimed director to mass communication scholars and deciphers a film inherently complex to interpret.

‘Natural Born Killers’: An Aesthetic-Ethical Deconstruction of Violence in (and of) the Mass Media • Joseph Harry, Slippery Rock University • The 1994 film Natural Born Killers is analyzed from a postmodern literary and aesthetic-ethical interpretive stance to consider the film’s own ethos pertaining to violence as both personal, family-dysfunctional issue and as cultural-media event. The theoretical position, and the film’s own chaotic, schizophrenic narrative, both provide a means to understand the film’s contradictory moral outlook from a deconstructivist ethical perspective, embracing complexity, irony and moral indeterminancy as a potentially inescapable and problematic outcome of ethical evaluation within a media-fragmented culture.

Fall Colors 2000: The State of Diversity in Broadcast Network Prime Time Television • Katharine Heintz-Knowles, Children’s Media Research and Consulting, and Jennifer Henderson, University of Washington • Network television came under fire during the 1999 season for it’s lack of racial diversity. Network executives responded with assurances that the 2000 season would be more inclusive of racial minority characters. This paper examines the racial diversity in the first two episodes of each entertainment series airing during prime time on the six broadcast networks for the Fall 2000 season. The study discovered that the network prime time world is primarily a white one, with African Americans making a visible presence and all other racial minority groups being virtually invisible. While a vast majority of programs have entire casts that are racially mixed, most of the racial minority characters are included in secondary and guest roles. When just opening credits casts are considered, the authors discovered that more programs featured racially homogeneous casts (either all white or all black) than racially mixed casts.

The Influence of Media Ownership on News Coverage: A case of CNN’s Coverage of Movies • Jaemin Jung, University of Florida • The purpose of this study was to examine whether media conglomerates use their own media outlets to promote their media products. Specifically, CNN’s coverage of movies was content analyzed to see differences based on the ownership. The findings suggest that CNN, a subsidiary of Time Warner, showed favoritism toward their parent company’s movies. While CNN increased the amount of coverage of Time Warner’s movies after the merger with Time Warner, it reduced the coverage of its competitors’ movies.

That Which Unites and Divides Us: A Study of Television Audience Meaning-Making • Karen E. Kline, Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania • This paper examines the social practices surrounding television that were enacted by a group of regular viewers of the television program Picket Fences. The ethnographic data provide a portrait of active audiencehood revealed through the ways respondents asserted control over their viewing experiences and the specific terms of their engagement with this program and its characters. At the same time, respondents generated ideologically diverse interpretations that reflected the racial and social class differences among them.

Mass Media Use and Teen Sexuality: Findings from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health • Myra Gregory Knight, Elon College • This study examined the cultivation of sexual attitudes and behaviors among adolescents based on the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, a representative sample of U.S. high school students. The study found that television viewing alone was not linked with any of the sexual attitudes tested but that sexually suggestive media use and overall media use were. Both television viewing and sexually suggestive media use were associated with an increased risk of sexual debut.

Offense and Harm as Predictors in a Third-Person Effect Variation Study • Ron Leone, Stonehill College • The purpose of this study is to examine how personal offensiveness to, and perceived harmfulness of, violent and sexual film content relates to the setting of minimum age limits for viewing movies containing examples of each. Using third-person effect as a theoretical framework, a 2×2 experiment was conducted. Subjects were asked to assess how harmful they believed what they viewed was, and, instead of responding to “effects on self” items, subjects indicated levels of personal offensiveness to the material. It is hypothesized that subjects will find sex more offensive than violence, and personal offensiveness will outweigh perceived harmfulness as affecting behavior (setting a minimum age limit for viewing). Findings are mixed: although sex appears to not be more offensive than violence, personal offensiveness does seem to outweigh perceived harmfulness when setting a minimum age limit for viewing sexual and/or violent movie content.

Bodies on Display: ESPN’s Coverage of the NFL Draft • Thomas P. Oates, University of Iowa • The 2000 NFL Draft was the occasion for an intense and remarkable media spectacle. ESPN’s production included television, magazine and internet coverage. This paper considers these texts from a critical/cultural perspective in order to interpret the complex ways in which assumptions and assertions about various forms of power are woven into the narratives produced by ESPN. The paper presents the argument that the draft coverage celebrated technological capitalism, masculinity and military values.

Latinas and African American Women in the Film “The 24-Hour Woman” • Diana I. Rios, University of Connecticut and Meta Carstarphen, University of North Texas • This essay examines women of color in “The 24-Hour Woman.” We examine how the film reconstructs images of Latinas and African American women and critique the extent to which the film breaks new ground. Our analytic approach includes “mestiza” (Sandoval, 1998; Anzaldua, 1987) and “womanist” (Walker, 1983) perspectives. The mestiza and womanist frameworks are appropriate for this film analysis since they lend insight into woman character thinking and development throughout the film narrative.

THE COMEDY CAMPAIGN: The Growing Influence of Humor in Presidential Elections, A Uses and Gratifications Approach • Laura K. Smith, University of Texas • In the year 2000, news and entertainment programs dedicated a great deal of comedic attention to the presidential race. Taking a Uses and Gratifications approach, the author examines the role of comedy among the young electorate. She concludes comedic programs, while popular, are among many sources young people use to learn about the candidates. The author also examines motivations driving young people to non-traditional sources and finds motivation can significantly affect the impact of jokes.

View the Right Way: Encoding/Decoding and the Critical Reception of Do the Right Thing • Mark W. Sullivan, Towson University • Spike Lee’s film Do the Right Thing became quite controversial upon its 1989 release. The unusually large amount of printed commentary generated by the film provides a rare opportunity to examine a variety of actual response to one text to help understand just how polysemic a text might be. Belying the theoretical potential of “selective perception” leading to an infinite number of individual decodings, the response quickly clustered into just two meanings.

Colonial/Censorship Burdens • See Kam Tan aand Annette Aw, Nanyang Technological University • This paper examines censorship with respect to colonialism. It specifically seeks to understand the operation of such prohibitive powers, their vigilance and failure, through a disursive analysis of Tsui Hark’s feature, Dangerous Encounter – 1st Kind (1980). Three interrelated questions guide the analysis: Is censorship all-powerful? How is censorship dealt with at the site of production? Can censorship engender an creative impetus of its own, beyond its initial debilitating capacity?

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Civic Journalism Interest Group

Teaching Crime and Violence Reporting from a Public Health Perspective • Judy Bolch and Esther Thorson, University of Missouri • This paper describes the public health perspective on crime and violence reporting and then justifies that approach by looking briefly at the extensive literature that has developed on the patterns of crime reporting that characterize American Journalism. The public health perspective can be clearly argued to fit well within the category “civic journalism.” This literature also suggests some of the detrimental effects on Americans of such reporting. With the public health reporting perspective justified, the paper then describes how the approach was used to teach crime and violence reporting to a class of undergraduate and graduate students. Readings, student work, and student evaluations of the course are described. The authors contend that this new way of teaching “cops and courts” suggests a potential benefit in linking research on journalistic content and critique of that content with hands-on teaching of young reporters.

Civic Journalism in the 2000 U.S. Senate Race in Virginia • David Kennamer and Jeff South, Virginia Commonwealth University • The Norfolk Virginian-Pilot is a proponent of civic journalism; the Richmond Times-Dispatch is not. Content analysis of the papers’ coverage of Virginia’s 2000 U.S. Senate election reflected the divergent newsroom philosophies. The Times-Dispatch stories were more likely to be triggered by campaign-managed events, to focus on the election “horse race” and to use political establishment sources. The Pilot’s stories were more likely to result from independent or enterprise reporting, to address issues and to use “real people” sources.

After Columbine: Public Journalism and The Needs of Youth • Jan Maxson, University of Washington • The Portland Press Herald initiated the “On The Verge” public journalism project in January 2000 to address issues faced by youth in the community. The school shootings at Columbine served as a catalyst to a five part project to address issues such as school, cliques, racism and pressures faced by youth This research involved 452 surveys of youth and community members to assess the project, its impact and changes in the community climate for teens.

Civic Autonomy in Journalism Education: An Alternative to the Lure of Detachment • Michael McDevitt, University of New Mexico • Civic journalism has failed to appreciate the importance of autonomy as an inevitable outcome of professional socialization. College students are likely to adopt a conventional view of autonomy given their need for psychological identification with the profession. Educators should promote a model of civic autonomy, which incorporates professional expertise in service to political activation. The intent is to match reporting methods with democratic goals, and thereby encourage a reflective approach to news coverage.

Civic Journalism Influence On Local TV News Coverage of the 2000 Elections • Amy Reynolds, Indiana University and Gary Hicks, Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville • During 2000, several corporate Owners of local television Stations announced they would incorporate initiatives into their 2000 election coverage to improve the quality of their political journalism. Simultaneously, Best Practices 2000 began to help local television stations develop strategies and plans for innovative election coverage. This study examines whether or not a variety of civic journalism principles had taken hold in local television news, even if none of the television Stations themselves were civic journalism advocates.

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Visual Communication Division

Defining Visual Communication in the New Media Environment • Linus Abraham, Iowa State University • New media technology provides the journalism academy the opportunity to fashion a transformative change in our understanding of communication • from one that emphasizes language to recognizing the visual modality as a primary mode of communication. The paper canvases for a movement from the balkanized and skills connotation associated with visual communication towards an integrated study of visual communication, both as an intellectual and skill activity. The paper argues that the concept of visual journalism (geared towards training visual generalist and inculcating visual fluency) provides an opportunity to reinvigorate visual communication and locate it at the center of journalism education.

A Visual Experiment in Acceptance: Does Quantity and Location of Blood Affect Readers’ Reaction to a Photograph? • Abhinav Aima and Patricia Ferrier, Ohio University; Les Roka, University of Utah; Lynn Silverstein and James Staebler, Ohio University• This experiment tested the reactions of 265 subjects to manipulated accident photographs, which were empirically constructed across increasing levels of “Gore” and given different geographic “Locations” in the cutline. Nine 7-point measures were designed to test the students’ responses. A three-way Analysis of Variance revealed that the factors of “Gore” and “Location”, or their interaction, did not cause significant variance but the factor of “Sex” did – Males varied significantly in their responses from females.

Affect and Emotion: Eliciting Compassionate Response Via Facial Affect in Visual Images • Courney Bennett, Stanford University • This study aims to extend research on the effects of visual message elements by examining the relationship between facial affect and emotional response. A study was conducted to explore two questions: 1) whether facial affect in visual images influences how compassionately people feel toward the person portrayed visually, and 2) what the relative influence of a message’s verbal and visual elements would be on compassionate response. The findings and their implications were discussed.

Selling the Revolution: Appropriating Black Radical Images for Advertising • Coletter Gaiter and Mohan Dutta-Bergman, University of Minnesota • Media images of 1960s and 70s African American militants introduced a new visual signifier we call “the defiant gesture.” The radicals themselves and the media both skillfully used photographs featuring black men in defiant poses to serve their specific agendas. A new archetypal black male image emerged that is now featured in advertising to urban hip-hop followers. Decontextualized in their current iterations, these powerful images serve divergent cultural and social needs of different audiences.

Establishing a Photojournalism Historiography: An Historiographical Analysis of the Developmental Approach • Timothy Roy Gleason, University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh • This paper examines the nature and application of the Developmental historical approach for photojournalism. It examines the approach by describing it, identifying assumptions held by Developmental historians, and lists questions these historians might ask. Then, it uses a communication history model to reveal how this approach can address particular aspects of the model. This is followed by a discussion of the approach’s strengths and weaknesses. Lastly, a conclusion offers some final comments.

Digitally Altered News Photographs: How much manipulation will the public tolerate before credibility is Lost? • Joseph Gosen, Reno Gazette-Journal and Jennifer Greer, University of Nevada-Reno • A quasi-experimental design was used to examine what factors influence public attitudes toward a digitally manipulated news photo, photography in general, and news media. Subjects were shown one of five versions of a photograph. Increasing levels of digital alteration caused lower credibility scores for the published photograph. Credibility of photography and the news media was influenced more by age, income, and education than treatment. Familiarity with imaging software was linked to tolerance of the alterations.

Seeking Gender Equity on the Sports Pages: An Analysis of Newspaper Photos from the 2000 Olympics • Marie Harden, University of West Georgia, Jean Chance and Julie Dodd, University of Florida, and Brent Hardin, University of West Georgia • Researchers conducted a content analysis of five daily newspapers’ publication of photographs during the 2000 Olympic Games to assess the reality of photo portrayals in relationship to gendered participation in the Games, and to assess the existence of sexual difference in the use of photos. The study concluded that the portrayal of women athletes in Olympics competition appears to show continuing change. The researchers conclude that there is good reason to predict a continuing trend of improved gender equity in Olympic sports coverage for women athletes and diminishing portrayals of sexual difference as the number of women athletes competing in the Games continues to increase.

Ideal-Body Media and Ideal Body Proportions 2 Ideal-Body Media and Ideal Body Proportions • Kristen Harrison, University of Michigan • Dozens of studies have linked ideal-body media exposure to the idealization of a slim female figure, but none have examined the proportions of this figure. This study correlates exposure to ideal-body media (television, fitness and fashion magazines) with college women’s and men’s perceptions of the ideal female bust, waist, and hips. For women, ideal-body media exposure predicted the choice of a smaller waist and hips, but not a smaller bust. For both women and men, ideal-body media exposure predicted approval of women’s use of surgical body-change methods.

Southern Mentalities, Photographic Reflections In Black and White: The 1915-1960 Mississippi Pictures of O.N. Pruitt • Berkley Hudson, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill • To explain race relations in the South during the last 170 years, historian Joel Williamson posits a template of three, Southern white mentalities: conservative, radical and liberal. These are reflected in photographs of O.N. Pruitt, who between 1915 and 1960 worked in Columbus, Mississippi. Regardless of which mentality is reflected, Pruitt, a white man, moved authoritatively in the worlds of black and white, rich and poor, documenting a complexity at once brutal and genteel.

Normative Conflict in the Newsroom: The Case of Digital Photo Manipulation • Wilson Lowrey, Mississippi State University • It is the contention of this study that journalism is divided into occupational subgroups, each representing a different area of expertise and a different sets of norms and values. Subgroups compete with one another for legitimacy. It is proposed that ethical problems in journalism – the case here is digital photo manipulation – may be viewed as evidence of normative conflict rather than as simply a crack in the ethical wall. Through in-depth interviews and a national survey, it is found that photo manipulation relates mostly closely with organizational complexity and multiplicity of subgroups, while there is some evidence that the newsroom’s normative environment as reflected in the existence of rules, also is related.

A Study Of The Persuasiveness Of Animation When Used As Forensic Demonstrative Evidence • Benjamin Allyn Meyer, Iowa State University • This study assessed that motion is the variable which makes forensic animation persuasive. Three groups of participants read a trial transcript. Each group saw a pro-prosecution or a pro-defense animation, images taken from the animations, or no visual imagery. Pro-prosecution imagery coincided with the physical evidence. Pro-defense imagery contradicted it. Results suggest that when computer-animated displays support the physical evidence, it is the dynamic nature of the animation which makes it persuasive to jury members.

If Looks Could Kill: The Ethics of Digital Manipulation of Fashion Models and Attitudes of Readers • Shiela Reaves, Jacqueline Hitchcon-Bush, Sung-Yeon Park, Gi Woong Yun, University of Wisconsin-Madison • Magazine editors and visual educators need to expand the ethical connections between digital manipulation of fashion models and the increased health crisis of eating disorders. This study examines reader response to the digital manipulation of fashion models and explores readers’ attitudes toward this use of new technology. This study challenges the implicit assumption of magazine editors and advertisers who defend digitally altered fashion photos by saying “our readers understand.” This study identified magazine images that promoted “the thin ideal” and then recovered the body image in a second photo that was digitally altered and restored to a healthy slimness. In an experiment 104 subjects viewed a total of six photographs, three “thin ideal” originals and three restored versions that transformed the models to slender as opposed to extremely thin. Findings indicated that prior exposure to very thin models, as opposed to versions restored to slenderness, reduced subjects sensitivity to the difference between extremely thin and slender versions, increased their self consciousness, and eroded their healthy eating attitudes. Furthermore, prior exposure to the thin ideal disempowered the subjects even after viewing both versions of each photograph: they were less likely to take action protesting the manipulation to editors and advertisers.

A Longitudinal Analysis of Network News Editing Strategies from 1969 through 1997 • Richard Schaefer, University of New Mexico • Four editing variables were tracked through a content analysis that spanned two 14-year periods. The analysis revealed that synthetic-montage increased and continuity-realism decreased across both periods, as network news editors embraced shorter sound bites, more special effects, and an increasing use of montage-edited footage. Quicker overall cutting rates and the use of more asynchronous sound increased from 1969 through 1983, but appeared to level off over the next 14-year period. When taken together, the results suggest that television journalism has evolved from more “camera of record” news techniques in favor of more thematically complex editing strategies.

Representing Class: John Vachon’s Portrait of 1940s Dubuque • James Tracy, University of Iowa • This project is an interpretive analysis of photographs of Dubuque, Iowa taken by FSA photographer John Vachon in 1940. This essay argues that the photographs constitute substantive historical evidence augmenting the existing history of a working class environment and culture. The paper considers the labor-management antagonism in Dubuque and the meaning and importance of images to interpretive historical inquiry.

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Scholastic Journalism Division

Confidence and Competence in Grammar: College Media Writing Students’ Self-Efficacy and Performance in Grammar • Kimberly L. Bissell, University of Alabama and Steve Collins, University of Texas-Arlington • Proper grammar is crucial for effective communication. Two surveys of students in an introductory writing course sought to identify variables that predicted grammar ability. Students demonstrated a limited grasp of the language, struggling with such issues as the distinction between it’s and its. Women performed better than men at the beginning of the semester, but the gap later narrowed. Self-efficacy and high school grade point average predicted grammar ability at the end of the semester. However, there were no significant differences between students with and without high school journalism experience.

JOB SATISFACTION OF HIGH SCHOOL JOURNALISM EDUCATORS • Jack Dvorak, Indiana University and Kay Phillips, University of North Carolina – Chapel Hill • Four research questions are posed to the job satisfaction of high school journalism educators. A national random sample of 669 respondents shows that journalism educators are generally satisfied with their jobs • more so than teachers in other disciplines. Multiple regression analysis using Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory as a foundation reveals that a mix of intrinsic and extrinsic satisfiers are best predictors of teacher job satisfaction. The leading predictor is morale of the faculty.

QUEST FOR FREEDOM: STUDENT PRESS RIGHTS UNDER THE FIRST AMENDMENT • Laurie Ann Lattimore, University of Alabama • no abstract

ARE HIGH SCHOOL AND COLLEGE STUDENTS REALLY DIFFERENT? A LEGAL ANALYSIS OF THEIR FIRST AMENDMENT RIGHTS IN THE WAKE OF KINCAID V. GIBSON (6th CIR. 2001) • Gregory C. Lisby, Georgia State University • no abstract

Journalism and Mass Communication Educators’ Career Choices: When and Why They Entered College Teaching • Lyle Olsen, South Dakota State University • This study found that 55 percent of journalism and mass communication educators first considered college teaching while in college or within five years afterwards, while 40 percent did not until more than five years after college. Two important factors in their career decisions included a personal influence (i.e., a mentor) and media experience, particularly student publications. The findings fit Holland’s theory of career development and other literature. Open-ended responses resulted in rich and heartfelt comments about JMC teaching careers.

Don Sneed, Florida International University • This paper shows how journalism educators use their research findings to teach high school journalism students about the way newspapers use and misuse racial stereotypes, thus introducing the high school journalists to an important concept and to Walter Lippmann and his book on Public Opinion. The “Oreo” stereotype is examined after it appeared in several Florida newspaper stories. The term was used by a former University of Florida president in remarks he made about his boss, the former black chancellor of the state university system.

PROTECTING STUDENT PRESS FREEDOMS: AN ANALYSIS OF STATUTORY PROTECTION FOR STUDENT PUBLICATIONS IN THE POST-HAZELWOOD YEARS • Cyndi Verell Soter, The University of North Carolina -Chapel Hill • no abstract

Reaching All Students: Journalism Education and Gender Bias • Kimberly Wilmot-Weidman, University of Wisconsin-Stout • no abstract

THE EFFECTS OF MOTIVATION AND ANXIETY ON STUDENTS’ USE OF INSTRUCTOR COMMENTS • Eric M. Wiltse, University of Wyoming • no abstract.

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